ML20072K756

Side Effects of Renewable Energy Sources, Revised Edition

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f SIDE EFFECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES Larry Medsker*

Revised Edition December, 1982 EPRD Report #15 i

L National Audubon Society, 950 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10022 i

• Dr. Hedsker is a Public Service Science Resident funded by the National Science Foundation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreward introduction The Report Overview Survey of Side Effects 1.

Blomass Energy 2.

Energy Ef ficiency 3

Direct Solar Heating and Cooling 4.

Hydropower 5

Wind Energy 6.

Photovoltaic Energy 7

Solar Thermal Electric Conversion 8.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 9

Geothermal Energy Summary Tables High-Risk Side Effects Mitigating Actions Bibliography l

l

[

.. FOREWORD The Side Effects of Renewable Energy Sources project (SERES) was established to identify aspects of renewable energy that could have undesirable impacts on the environment and to identify steps that could be taken to reduce such impacts.

This project was initiated by Jan Beyea and Larry Medsker as a proposal to the National Science Foundation, Science for Citizens Program. Since his appointment as a Public Service Science Resident, Dr. Hedsker has assumed responsibility for carrying out the research and writing for this Report.

The work has been done in consultation with Dr. Jan Beyea, Senior Energy Scientist, and Dr. Glenn Paulson, Vice President for Science, at the National Audubon Society. Helpful advice has also been contributed by Dr. Rachelle Hollander, Program Manager for Science for Citizens.

Dr. Larry Medsker is currently on the faculty of the New Jersey Institute of Technology in the Department of Computer and Information Science. Most of this report was prepared while he was on the faculty at Fordham University. The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation The Science for Citizens program was established by the NSF Of fice of Science and Society to increase the knowledgeable participation of both scientists and nonscientists in the resolution of major public issues involving science and technology. A goal has been to provide scica;ific and technical expertise to the public so that citizens can better understand and participate in decisions on policy issues.

The National Audubon Society, founded in 1905, is a national environmental organization dedicated to protecting the land, air, and water on which all life depends. Thus, Audubon is concerned with the powerful impact of the production and use of energy on our environment with special concern for the effects on wildlife and its habitat.

Awareness of the serious ecological impact of energy systems has led the Society to expaad its staff in this area. A new environmental policy research l

.' department has been formed to carry out policy studies on energy systems, as well as other areas of environmental interest. The Society has recently released the Audubon Energy Plan (81 Aud)--a practical plan for obtaining Other adequate energy in the United States while protecting the environment.

studies in progress are directed to population pressures, land use issues, and the impact of conventional energy systems on wildlife (see ref. 81 Pla).

A draft of this report was examined by outside reviewers for errors and omissions. We are indebted to Paul Bente (Bioenergy Council), Ken Bossong (Citizens' Energy Project), Chris Flavin (Worldwatch Institute), Thomas Johansson (University of Lund, Sweden), Lionel Johns (Office of Technology Assessment), Jose Goldemberg (University of Sao Paulo, Brazil), James Huning (Jet Propulsion Laboratory), Alan McGowan (Scientists' institute for Public Information), David Pimental (Cornell), Steven Plotkin (Office of Technology Assessment, Howard Ris (Union of Concerned Scientists), Marc Ross (University of Michigan), and Gordon Thompson (Union of Concerned Scientists). Most of the specific suggestions and recommended additions to tables have been incorporated in the final report.

A few reviewers suggested that additional work be done to reorganize the information presented in the report according to the relative significance of 1

the energy technologies and the side effects discussed. Although work on relative rankings has been an on-going part of the overall project, and although a preliminary listing of high-risk side effects is included in Table 6, the major goal of thi's first report has been to establish a comprehensive survey of side effects that would be as free as possible from value-based interpretations and rankings. As such, this data base provides a solid foundation for the difficult process of quantitatively estimating risks and ranking the renewables.

Further discussion of rankings is found on Page 8.

.. INTRODUCTION Envi ronmental consequences, produced by the implementation of energy systems, have been the subject of considerable research and writing--especially in regard to the use of nonrenewable sources such as coal, nuclear and oII. The use of these energy systems is accompanied by risks for which monetary costs can be assigned, as well as risks that are difficult to quantify in economic terms.

The burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of air pollution.

Increasing C0 levels pose a global threat of cIlmate changes, and y

acid rain contaminates soll and surface waters, destroying fish and plant life. Reliance on foreign oil also threatens U.S. security--

economically because of cutoffs and the effects on the balance of trade, and militarily because reckless responses to an oil embargo might be considered.

Likewise, the use of nuclear power poses a threat as radioactive substances accumulate in reactors and waste storage sites.

The development of nuclear power is also accompanied by the spread of nuclear weapons.

Large groups of people face potential exposure to releases of radioactivity as a result of mismanagement, operator error, or sabotage.

Other environmental impacts of nonrenewable energy sources Include the damage due to strip mining and the overuse of water l

supplies--especially in arid areas of the West. The many envionmental consequences of nonrenewables have severe effects on wildlife and plants, I

i as well as on humans.

The prospect of alternative, renewable sources of energy are accompanied by the hope of significant diminution of environmental risks.

The impacts mentioned above could be eliminated or

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drastically reduced with the more ef ficient use of energy and with the conversion to renewable sources. With these new energy systems comes, too, the opportuni ty to implement them responsibly; i.e., with environmental concerns in mind at their inception.

in addition to being potentially compatible with good environmental j

practices, the use of renewable energy and efficient use of all energy systems would enable a significant reduction in our dependence on foreign oil and our production of radioactive materials. Thus, the risk of war and other threats to national security would be reduced.

Environmental groups and others have been promoting a variety of renewable sources and conservation plans as environmentally benign alternatives to conventional energy systems. However, relatively little attention has been focused on potential problems that could arise. Used on a sufficiently large scale and without due consideration of environmental impacts, some renewables might turn out to be less desirable than conventional systems. For instance, attention has been drawn to the indirect impact of certain solar technologies that require the use of polluting energy sources to prepare their construction materials. It is important for those advocating renewable energy to investigate thoroughly any potential problems that could make that source unacceptable. The importance of how renewables are used needs to be emphasited.

in this way, bad choices can be avoided and decisions can be made early in the development of an energy tech-nology to lessen the environmental harm. We will therefore be going into the solar age wi th 'our eyes' open.

The environmental impact of the use of renewable energy systems

' has been receiving some attention recently; however, both more study and greater pubilc awareness are needed. As Indicated in the reference sections r

}

l of this report, a number of studies focus on aspects of particular I

renewables. An excellent review article by Holdren et al. (80 Hol) discusses a methodology for a comprehensive study and lays the foundation for comparisons among several major renewables. The

. National Academy of Sciences, through its Committee on Nuclear and Alternative Energy Systems (CONAES), as well as the Department of Energy, have presented limited discussions of other subsets of the renewable sources (80 CON, 79 DOE).

Still needed is a comprehensive treatnent that

• Covers all significant renewables, including energy efficiency measures and geothermal energy,#

• Establishes a basis for comparison among renewables.

• Identifies potential ways to alleviate adverse effects,

• Relates the environmental concerns directly to problems affecting wildlife and its habitat, and

• Looks at the implications for aesthetics, public health and safety, and global threats to human survival.

The goal of the SERES project is to address the above needs.

Specifically, the objectives have been to search the literature,,

identify environmental impacts, and propose ways to mitigate undesirable side effects. This study seeks'to establish an extensive and comprehensive basis for the quantitative evaluation of issues that affect policy decisions.

Early identification of uncertainties and gaps in knowledge will allow time for the necessary research and development to ensure that problems can be resolved or alternative energy systems can be chosen. Thus, an outcome of this project would be to alert environmental groups and other concerned citizens to potential problems and to propose solutions that will assure that alternative technologies will meet the expectations of those who want environmentally benign energy systems.

1. The definition of rewewable is not precise. For example, even the breeder reactor, if restricted to fuel from the ocean, could be considered renewable (Private communication of a preprint from B. L. Cohen). This report has been limited to those energy sources most often mentioned as likely alternatives to conventional systems.

. THE REPORT OVERVIEW In this report, nine major renewable sources of energy arel examined for environmental side effects in accordance with preselected criteria and guidelines.

For each renewable, a number of side effects were identified, and qualitative descriptions were compiled, along with a bibliography of recent references. A part of this report is a set of extensive tables that catalog the various stresses, potential consequences, and possible mitigating factors.

The information presented here represents the initial step toward establishing a SERES data base that will include for each type of renewable energy 1

• Environmental stresses organized by category (land, water, ai r, etc.)

• Ecological consequences

• Possible mitigating factors and actions

• Other data that can be used as input "to models for projecting trends and for various calculations related to environnental side effects This data base will be updated as new information becomes available and will be available for use in ongoing work.

The report provides a comprehensive view of side effects resulting from use of those renewable energy sources most likely to l

be available in the next decade. The Report will also serve as the basis for future work in the SERES Project that will provide quantitative evaluations of the significance of the various side effects.

. The present work demonstrates that even renewable energy sources have environmental risks, and that seemingly benign technologies can, if care is not taken, have very undesirable consequences.

The following considerations should be kept in mind in further Investigations of these and other renewables:

• A systematic approach is important in order to ensure that important, but unapparent, aspects are not missed,

• Case studies are very useful for measuring and demonstrating side effects and risks.

In the case of aspects that are dif ficult to quantify (aesthetic factors, e.g.), detailed case studies may be the only way to illustrate the importance of certain side effects.

• Complete cycles (e.g., harvesting or mining, transporting, manufacturing or processing, constructing, operating, maintaining, decommissioning) must be considered so that the full impact is determined and fair comparisons can be made.

• " Scale" and " time-frame" are important categories to consider; e.g., long-or short-range nature of ef fects, small-or large-scale impacts.

In regard to the above categories, some preliminary attempts to display the information gathered in this study are shown in the tables found in the summary section of this report.

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Rankings Aside from a preliminary listing of high-risk side effects, given in Table 6, detailed rankings of renewable energy technologies and side effects were intentionally excluded from.this report. The main goal of the report has been a comprehensive catalog of possible side effects with a minimum of value-based interpretations.

To the extent that rankings are possible, they are both difficult to make and temporary.

For example, new engineering information may become available by the time the rankings are published. Also, the importance of a particular technology can shif t dramatically as a result of technological breakthroughs or as a result of a rapid increase in fossil fuel prices.

Furthermore, as attention is focussed on the problems ranked most serious, solutions may be developed that change the original ranking.

Perhaps a more fundamental difficulty with rankings is the fact that different people Judge impacts differently. To some, the loss of a wild river to a hydroelectric facility is much more serious than increased I

risk to human health from wood stove air pollution. Rankings can become subjects of contention that divert energies away from more productive work.

We believe that rankings should be kept separate from the non-controversial task of cataloging energy side effects.

Even side effects that appear to be relatively insignificant from a national perspective can have serious local impacts that should not be ignored. Research into mitigation strategies for all potential side effects should be carried out. To that end, the existence of a catalog of possible impacts could make ideas for mitigating actions come to mind.

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_9 Recurrent Side Effects The use of renewable energy sources involves the tapping of natural flows of energy in the environment.

If the source is used in a sustainable fashion, the energy is removed at a rate that is comparable to that at which energy is being naturally replenished.

To accomplish this, however, requires conversion technologies that operate on dispersed, in some cases intermittent, sources.

This shared characteristic of renewable energy sources leads l'

to common side effects.

In some cases, large systems, such as windmill farms, are required in order that energy can be collected in sufficient quantities to be practically useful.

This means, l

l for example

• 1arge land requirements.

• disruption of wildlife habitats,

• Increased demand for materials required for construction with the accompanying environmental impacts associated with manufacturing the materials,

• health and safety problems connected with construction, operation, and maintenance of energy facilities,

• potential air and water pollution from the release of working fluids and other chemicals (e.g., cleaning solutions),and

• use of (often nonrenewable) energy for manufacturing construction materials and for transporting resources or equi pnen t.

Details on these and resource-specific side effects are presented in the next section of this report.

. SURVEY OF SIDE EFFECTS The results presented in the following tables are qualitative summaries of information on side effects, arranged according to the type of renewable energy source. This particular view of the SERES data base catalogs the various potential effects without assessing relative importance. These results form the basis for the ongoing work of quantifying, where possible, the significance of the various side effects.

Description of Tables For each renewable, a summary of the technical aspects is first given, followed by charts of information grouped according to generic side effect.

At the end of each section is found an abbreviated IIst of references on the environmental aspects of the renewable energy source being presented.

The information on environmental side effects is summarized in the tables according to the following colunds:

• Stress--al tered envi ronmental condi tions (e.g., water pollution) that arise from activities associated with the use of energy systems.

• Consequences--responses (e.g., losses, damage, and accidents) associated with environmental stress.

• Mitigation--ways in which environmental stress might be eliminated or reduced.

Further work is in progress to estimate impacts, assess risk leveIs, rank the renewable options, and propose tactics for achieving mitigation.

. 1.

BIOMASS ENERGY Biological processes use sunlight to create biological matter which therefore can be considered a source of solar energy.

Broad categories of biomass resources are

• Plant matter (80-90% of current resources)

• Animal and human wastes

• Refuse A number of technologies are currently being developed and improved to convert biomass into various forms of energy (see Table 1).

Table 1 b Table 1 a.

c CONVERSION PROCESSES RESOURCES

• Di rect Combustion

• Cellulosic Materials (e.g., wood and crop residues)

• Thermochemical Conversion

• Agricultural crops

--Starches

--Pyrolysis

--Gasification

--Sugars

--Oil seeds (e.g., sunflower)

--Li quef action

• Wastes--animal and human

• Biochemical Conversion

--Fermentation

• Refuse

--Aerobic and Anaerobic Digestion

• Acquatic Crops (e.g, ocean kelp and fres'hwater and marine

• Mechanical Extraction water hyacinths (e.g., pressing seeds to obtain oil)

• Natural products from plants (e.g., oil-like hydrocarbon compounds from Euphorbia and Copalba plants) l

. 1 in table 2 are shown the projections by the National Audubon Society and the Office of Technological Assessment for the possible contributions of biomass energy sources to the national energy supply in the year 2000. According to both projections, biomass would supply the largest contribution among all of the renewable sources of energy (see Table 2).

except for conservation.

Although most renewables have certain land requirements, f

biomass technologies are unique in the extent to which prime farm-land and forests might be used.

For example. a large-scale program 4

for liquid fuels from food quality biomass could result in direct competition with the use of crops for food.

Because of the variety of resources and conversion technologies, biomass energy systems have potential j

side effects in all categories of environmental concern. A danger is that overuse and poor management could lead to unsustainable, and j

therefore non-renewable, systems.

I Table 2 Projected contributions of biomass energy by the year 2000.

b)

Resources Audubon Plan

• OTA Forecas Wood 5.8 Quads 5-10 Quads Grasses and Legumes 0-5 Grains 03 0-1 1

l Crop Residues )

l N

Garbage 2.8 0.9-1.5 Animal Manure j

TOTAL 8.9 Quads 5.9-17 5 Quads a) (81 Aud) and private communication from Jan Beyea. The values the table are from the original Audubon Plan, which is to be revised periodically.

- b) (81 OTA)

I BIOMASS ENERGY (Growing and Harvesting)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation (Altirations of land, water, air, wildlife, flora)

LAND New conversions of land for forests Competition with other needs. Possible Avoid economic subsidies for energy and crops.

land shortages, forcing marginal lands crops.

into production.

Incr;ased use of marginal lands.

Pressure on protected forests, Restrict land conversions, grasslands and marshland.

Exc2ssive removal of crop residues.

Increased erosion; loss of nutrients Use best agriculture and silvi-Whole-tree removal.

and organic matter; lower productivity culture management techniques.

ChInge of land contours.

and increased use of fertilizers.

Harvest crop residues and trees in sustainable manner.

New roadways for access to crops and Discourage whole-tree removal, e

farests.

Post-leaf-fall harvesting of trees.

Cf WATER g

Wat:r required for growing.

Water shortages, especially in marginal Avoid siting energy farms in water-land areas.

short areas.

Runoff of soil, nutrients, pesti-Contamination of water supplies with Prevent excessive erosion (see above).

cides into water.

nutrients and soil. Eutrophication.

Sedimentation.

Aquatic crops:

local alteration of water content due to emissions cf organic matter, fertilizers, and construction materials.

BIOMASS ENERGY (Growing and Htrvatting) flitigation Environmental Stress Consequences AIR Dust emission from crop harvesting.

Health hazards for farm workers, Safety gear for workers.

Release of insecticides, fungicides, especially from chemicals applied and, herbicides.

by aircraft.

[

Release of soil particles from wind Grosion.

Aesthetic and public health problems.

Debris and odors from refuse collec-Possible loss of recreational and Enforce public health rules.

tion.

residential areas nearby.

Emissions associated with production Increased air pollution in manufacturing Use energy-efficient equipment and 8

of energy and materials required and energy production regions.

renewable energy.

for planting, harvesting, and y

i transporting crop and forest fuels.

Marine farms: bringing up cold, Incal weather changes, fog generation.

Monitor CO

1. • l*****

2 deep ocean water could release CO. Global warming from CO buildup.

Use good forest management.

2 Possible net CO, increase due to unsustainable harvesting of forests and crop residues.

DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Intensive forest management.

Trush removal, deforestation, con-Disruption of wildlife habitats; Exclude critical habitats from version of marshland and grassland.

possible loss of certain species, development.

~

Increased use of insecticides, Loss of grassland and marshland Emphasize forest sources--discourage I

use of wetlands.

fungicides, and herbicides.

ecosystems.

Loss of flora, contamination of animal Conservative use of monocultures.

f food chains.

~

t Acessnulation of logging residues Fire hazard.

Require good logging practices.

Marine farms: exposure of organisms to colder water and construction Ioss of certain fish from that area.

materials.

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.s BIOMASS ENERGY (Growing and Harvesting)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation OTHER STRESSES Release of pathogens from municipal Public and worker health problems from Enforce public health ordinances.

and animal waste collection sites.

exposure to pathogens.

Increased work activity in planting, Increased number of accidents (high Improved, safe equipment.

harvesting, and transporting of rate for workers in that occupation).

Promote awareness of safety problems energy crops and precautions.

k h

BIOMASS ENERGY (Conversion Processes)

Environmental Stress-Consequences Mitigation (Alterations of land, water, air, wildlife, flora)

LAND New use of land for disposal and Competition for land.

Monitor and remove harmful substances treatment of sludge, stillage, Possible degradation of soII quality, before dumping or returning and other residues from conversion from heavy metals and other con-residues to the soil, processes, taminants in residues--especially More research on the effects of toxic Disruption of land for construction if used as fertilizers or soil projects and later for transport conditioners, substances propagated by' use of of resources and conversion residues.

residues as fertilizers.

WATER WLter consumption required in some increased demand for water-possible Choose conversion processes that 2.

conversion technologies for shortages.

minimize the use of water.

I cooling or for working fluid.

Avoid siting facilities in water-short areas.

Olsposal of residues in water.

Water quality degradation from heavy Choose sites away from aquifers.

metals and from organic matter with Monitor and process wastes before high 02 demand.

releasing.

Reuse residues to produce fertilizer or to produce methane.

Aquatic farms: possible release of Contamination of freshwater.

materials from corrosion, residues, and equipnent.

m O

BIOMASS ENERGY (Conversion Processes)

Envi ronmental Stress Consequences Mitigation AIR Emission of C07 particulates, orgarilcs increased level of polyorganic matter Require pollution control technologies.

f rom bo i le rs.

(POM) in the air.

Monitor small, decentralized facIIIties.

Products of Incomplete combustion f rom Indoor and local outdoor ai r quality.

Develop control technologies for residential wood stoves.

degradation; health problems, car-residential stoves.

cinogens.

Discourage use of coal in wood stoves.

f Local outdoor smoke accumula, tion from Potential health problems; aesthetic Enforce local ordinances.

residential stoves.

losses; annoyance to some people.

Emissions from nonrenewable fuel increased levels of nitrogen and Use pollution control technologies.

combustion at distilleries.

sulfur compounds could contribute Emissions associated with production to health problems and cause more i

of materials used to build conver-acid rain, sion facilities, increased air pollution in manufac-turing areas.

Mora evaporative and aldehyde Air quality degradation in some respects; Develop vehicles that use pure smissions from vehicles when however, reduction in pollution from alcohol fuels.

slcohol is mixed with gasoline.

sulfur and nitrogen compounds.

Develop catalytic equipment.

DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Disruption of habitats to build Disruption of ecosystems, contamin-Avoid critical habitats as disposal conversion facilities-especially ation of food chains.

sites.

Possible loss of some species in the If siting close to biomass area of the facility.

growing areas, Csntamination of natural areas from dumping sludges and residues.

L 4

BIOMASS ENERGY (Conversion Processes)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation OTHER STRESSES SIfaty features lacking in some brands Home burn and fire accidents.

Include safety features in manu-of wood stoves.

facture of stoves.

Texic gases produced in gasifiers (e.g.

Hazards to workers; especially Use good chemical handling practices.

cmmonia, H 8 - cyanide,phenois) at small farm on-site facilities Publicize safety problems and High pressure,' hot gases produced in precautions.

2 boilers and distilleries ~.

Sludges and residues may have to be transported to dump sites.

Enargy and chemicals, concrete and Possible shortages of some materials.

Use renewable energy and energy-ether materials are needed for the increased energy demand from non-efficient equipment.

c:nstruction and use of conversion renewable sources.

fccilities.

Barriers to navigation due to Shipping accidents.

Use adequate signalling equipment.

presence of sea and freshwater Keep farms out of navigation lanes.

farms.

w

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19 BIOMASS REFERENCES

• (81 CEPI)

Bossong, " Gasohol and Other Alcohol Fuels" (81 ERAB)

Energy Resource Advisory Board, Biomass Energy (81 Fer)

Ferchak and Pye, " Utilization of Blomass...for Ethanol Fuel..."

• (81 OTA 1)

OTA Rept: Energy f rom Biological Processes

• (81 Pim 1)

Pimentel, " Biomass Energy from Crop and Forest Residues"

• (81 Pim 2)

Pimentel, " Biomass Energy: Bonanza or Boondoggle?"

• (81 Smi)

Smith, " Wood: An Ancient Fuel with a New Future" (81 Sof)

Sofer, Biomass Conversion Processes for Energy and Fuels

• (81 USD)

USDA/CEQ Rept: " Farm Land and Energy:

Conflicts in the Making"

• (80 Ben)

Bente, "An Overview of Bio-Energy Projects in the United States" (80 Bio)

B_loenergy Di rectory (80 Bro)

Brown, Food or Fuel: New Competition for the World's Cropland

• (80 Bud)

Budiansky, " Bioenergy: The Lesson of Wood Burning?"

• (80 Bur)

Burns, "Envi r. Impacts of increased Fuelwood Use"

• (80 CON)

CONAES Report, Supporting Paper 8

• (80 Coo)

Cooper, " Environmental impact of Residential Wood Combustion" (80 Doe)

Doering, " Energy Dependence" (80 EIA)

Energy info. Admin., Ann. Rept. to Congress (80 ElH)

Environ. Info. Handbook: Technology Characterizations

'(80 Hol)

'Holdren et al., "Envir Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources" (80 Huf)

Huff, " Ethanol from Biomass" (80 Jun)

Junge, "... Synthetic Fuels from Blomass"

• (80 Ken)

Kendall and Nadis, Energy Strategies _

(80 LBV)

Energy from Blomass and Wastes IV

• (80 NBS)

" Activities in Wood-Heating Safety," NBS Dimenstens (80 Nor)

North, "... Biomass from Marine Macroscopic Plants"

Biomass Ref&rences

• (80 Pim)

Pimentel et al., "The Potential for Grass-Fed Livestock:

Resource Constraints"

• (80 Plo)

Plotkin. " Energy from Biomass" (80 Qui)

Quittenton " Alcohol from Biomass"

• (80 Rie)

Riegel et al., "Envir. and Health Concerns Steming from Use of Bio Energy" (80SER1)

Solar Energy, Program Summary Document (80 SER 2)

F_uel From Farms, A Guide to Small-Scale Ethanol Production (80 SER 3)

Tree Crops for Energy Co-Production on Farms

• (79 Hig)

High and Hewett, "Envir. Aspects of Wood Energy Conversion"

• (79 Hol)

Holdren et al., Reply to Inhaber article in Science (79Hoy)

Hoyt and Bebee, Agriculture and Alternate Energy Sources

• (79 Inh)

Inhaber, " Risk with Energy from Conventional and Non-Conventional and Nonconventional Sources"

• (79Kla)

Klass, Biomass as a Nonfossil Fuel Sources

• (79 Law)

Lawrence, "A Review of Environmental Effects and Benefits of Selected Solar Energy Technologies" (79 SER)

Proc., Third Annual Biomass Energy Systems Conf.

(79Sor)

Sorensen, Renewable Energy (78Bal)

Batten et al,... Energy Recovery from Municipal Sludge and Feedlot Manure

• (78Hru)

Hruby, "Envir. Impact from Oceanic Energy Plantations"

• (78 Inh)

Inhaber, Risk of Energy Production l

(78Lov)

Love and Overend, Tree Power: An Assessment of the Energy Potential...

• (78 Poo)

Poole and Williams " Flower Power: Prospects for Photo-synthetic Energy" (77And)

Fuels from Wastes Anderson and Tillman, eds.

(77Hal)

Hall, "Will Photosynthesis Solve the Energy Problem?"

(77 Til)

Tillman et al., Fuels and Energy from Renewable Resources

• Contains discussion of environmental side effects

c.-

. 2.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY Energy conservation plans and the use of higher-efficiency equipment are renewable energy sources in as much as energy is continually That saved energy might otherwise have to be supplied f rom non-being saved.

renewable sources. Major areas in which energy efficiency improvements can be made are summarized in Table 3 Energy efficiency efforts can also lead to environmental side An example is the possibility of indoor air pollution e f fects.

resulting from reduced air infiltration af ter conservation measures have Other effects unique to energy efficiency are health and been applied.

safety problems that could arise from changes in conventional processes, techniques, and lifestyles (e.g., temperature setback in winter).

Table 3 Summary of Energy Efficiency Hea'sures Comments and Examples Heasures Tightening Buildings insulation, Caulking, Storm windows; House doctors Efficient Appliances Purchase of new appliances with improved ef ficiency (e.g., heat pumps, washers, ref rigerators)

Retooling of Factories Changes in industrial processes and physical plant to make use of lower-energy techniques (e.g., auto-matic control of combustion processes, lighting systems, changes in feedstocks, and new catalysts).

Heat Recovery and Industrial heat recovery systems: sequential use of Cogeneration steam for electricity and other uses.

I Efficient New designs of vehicles for higher fuel efficiency; Transportation shift to vehicles with diesel engines; reduction in freight transport; changes in driving habits and bicycling to reduce gasoline use.

Automatic controls using computers. Changes in lifestyles Compute rizat ion (e.g., electronic funds transfer, home information systems). More use of communications systems to reduce travel.

...... ~..

ENERGY EFFICIENCY Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation (Alterations of land, water, air, wildlife, flora)

LAND Hrrvesting of forest products for increased forest land requi rements.

Encourage use of lowest quality cellulose insulation.

Erosion, loss of nutrients waste paper for manufacture Stresses associated with intensive (See BIOMASS Energy - Growing and of insulation.

forest management (See BIOMASS Harvesting.)

ENERGY - Growing and Harvesting.)

j WATER RIquirements for water in open-cycle Contribution to possible water shortages.

Discourage use of water heat pumps heat pumps.

In water-short areas.

I Runoff associated with forest and Water pollution.

Prevent excessive erosion.

cgricultural crops.

AIR Buildup of radon, smoke, fumes in Low-level radiation hazards from radon Ibuse-doctor checks for high radon tight houses, products.

levels.

Air quality degradation; health problems.

Ventilate cooking and furnace areas.

Seal off basement in new construction.

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) leaks from Health hazard from Inhalation.

Appliance standards to minimize leaks.

heat pumps.

Avoid use of insulation containing Outgassing of fonnaldehyde from some formaldehyde.

insulation.

Air pollution from cogeneration Air pollution sources moved closer to Restrict cogeneration facilities to facilities.

residential. areas.

use of natural gas.

Ovar reliance on automatic controls Air quality degradation from particulate Avoid use of automatic controls where can lead to greater levels of emissions.

difficult to maintain. Further study incomplete combustion and required on problems with automatic particulate emissions.

controls.

'1 ENERGY EFFICIENCY Envi ronmental Stress Conseq uences Mitigation AIR (continued)

Tn harvesting products for cellulose insulation, poor forest management Addition to global warming potential.

Demand sustainable use of forests.

could lead to net CO increase.

Use low quality waste paper for 2

manufacture of insulation.

High2r rate of particulate Potential increase in cancer in Modify combustion process to minimize emission from vehicles with humans and genetic modifications nitroarene formation in diesel diesel engines; increase in in flora and fauna.

particulates (e.g., afterburn treat-nitroarene compounds.

ments).

Do not relax levels of permissable emissions.

Alert the public to the importance of O

properly adjusted engines; include

'I checks in vehicle inspection.

More research on biological con-sequences of nitroarenes.

DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Disruption of forest lands for Possible loss of certain species.

' Good forest management.

hirvesting material for cellulose Avoid use of forests that have insulation, critical habitats.

OTHER STRESSES Heat buildup due to improperly Fire hazards.

Use proper insulation procedures.

Installed Insulation (e.g. around Enforce housing codes.

electrical outlets).

Wbrksrs installing insulation may More worker accidents and injuries.

Promote awareness of safety problems bn exposed to fiberglass, intense and precautions.

hrat, danger of falling, a

i

(

ENERGY EFFICIENCY Envi ronmental Stress Consequences Mitigation OTHER STRESSES (continued)

Riduced lighting in the work place.

Eye fatigue for workers doing fine Investigate consequences before reducing work (e.g., sewing and machining).

lighting.

ConsFde~r work requirements.

Vitamin D deficiency among workers in artificial lighting.

Use daylighting. Plan for it in the design of office buildings.

Increased demand for materials and Shortage of some materials. Use of non-Discourage production of synthetic energy needed' for manufacture of renewable energy in manufacture of Insulation (energy intensive).

Insulation, insulation.

Possible higher replacement frequency increased demand on materials and Quality control and testing to design for newly-designed appliances.

energy for manufacture, reliable appliances.

increased demand for substitution Possible shortage of some materials Avoid use of materials potentially 4

materials in new efficient appli-needed fo,r other purposes.

In short supply.

ances and vehicles (e.g., oil-based plastics).

Rtduced temperatures due to Hypothermia leading to illnesses thermostat setback.

and deaths.

Workers in retooled factories have Chance of more accidents than with Provide retraining opportunities to adjust b new procedures.

old' system--at least initially.

and sufficient transition time.

More small cars on the highways for Lower accident rates but greater Automatic seat belts and/or air bags, higher fuel efficiency.

severity.

Improved safety design in vehicles.

More bicycles on the streets.

More accidents between bike riders Bike lanes, separation from vehicles.

and vehicles.

Reduced lighting in public places.

Increased incidence of crime.

Retain lighting in ilkely crime areas.

. i ENERGY EFFICIENCY RCFERENCES

• (82Plo)

Plotkin " Forecast.ing Trends in Auto Safety"

• (82 Ros)

Rosenkranz, " Diesel Emissions and Health" (81 Gib)

Gibbons and Chandler, Energy, The Conservation Revolution

• (81 Gra)

Gray and von Hippel, "The Fuel Economy of Light Vehicles"

• (81 Hur)

Hurwitz et al., "Commentory on Indoor Air Pollution"

• (81 Ju)

Ju and Spengler, " Room-to-Room Variations in Concentration of Respirable Particles In' Residences"

• (81 Ros 1)

Ross and Williams, Our Energy: Regaining Control

• (81 Ros 2)

Ross, " Energy Consumption by Industry"

• (80 Com)

Comptroller General Rept. to Congress, Indoor Air Pollution:-

An Emerging Health Problem

• (80 Gol)

M. Gold, " Indoor Air Pollution"

• (80 Ner)

Nero, "The Radon Controversy..."

• (80 RPC)

U.S. Radiation Policy Council, Radon in Structures

• (80 Sma)

Smay, "Home Pollution"

• (79 Bey 1)

Beyea, " Maintaining Air quality in Occupied Houses..."

• (79 Bey 2)

Beyea, " Indoor Air Pollution" (79 Har)

Harrje et al., " Locating and Eliminating Obscure but Major Energy Losses..."

• (79 Pal)

Palmes et al., " Relationship of Indoor NO...Unvented Gas 2

Appliances"

• (79 Soc)

Socolow, "Four Anxieties about a Rigorous National Conservation Program..."

• (79 Ste)

. Sterling and Sterling, " Carbon Honoxide Levels in Kitchens.."

• (78 Kab)

Kaboth "The Hazards of Saving Energy in Heavy Industry"

• (78 Ohl)

Ohlemiller and Rogers "A Survey of Several Factors influencing Smoldering Combustion..."

(78 Soc)

Socolow, "Saving Energy in the Home"

• (77 Sil)

Silberstein, " Exposure to Indoor Pollution"

• Discusses environmental side effects.

+

26-5 3

DIRECT SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING Solar heatin'g and cooling systems are used to convert incident sunlight to thermal energy for space heating and hot water systems.

Passive systems make use of improved construction and design to capture solar radiation directly for warming living space. The distribution of heat can occur by radiation, conduction, and convection. Active systems use secondary working fluids that are heated by solar radiation and then circulated by means of pumps in order to distribute heat for innediate use or for storage systems. Because of the intermittent nature of sunlight, storage systems and/or conventional backup systems (of ten electric resistive heating) are required.

Table 4.

Systems Comments and Examples Passive Architectural South-facing windows, glazed windows, thermal Designs mass storage in walls and floors Flat plate Collectors Glass-encased areas in which working fluid isexposedtosolarradfation.

Produces temperatures in 140-180 F range.

1 j

Other Collectors and Concentrators, tracking systems, etc., can Auxiliary Equipment be used to produce higher temperatures Ice Blocks Collection of ice in. winter, insulated storage for-later use in warm weather for air conditioning.

Storage Ponds Collection of solar energy in saline ponds (e.g., to supply energy needs on farms).

I i

DIRECT SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING Hitigation Environmental Stress

_ Consequences (Altsrations of land, water, ai r, wildlife, flora)

LAND Pot;ntial increase in urban sprawl increased competition for land.

Avoid use of prime land for housing.

Consider intermediate-scale low-rise since direct small-scale collection housing.

fcvors low-density, low-rise housing.

Stcrcge ponds have some land requirements.

WATER Evaporative cooling towers may be Addition to water shortage.

Use closed-cycle cooling.

Otherwise, avoid siting in water-ustd for air conditioning and short areas.

fer some cogeneration facilities.

Pcssible release of chemicals (e.g.,

Chemicals, such as ethylene glycol, Careful design of equipment, working fluids) during maintenance, may contaminate water supplies.

Choose chemicals with environmental Impact in mind.

4 accidents, or decommissioning.

T Pcssible leaks of anti-corrosive and anti fouling additives (in evapor-ative cooling towers).

Possible chemical leaks from saline ponds.

AIR l

Reicase of toxics from working fluids Ai r quality degradation.

Choose chemicals for working fluids to minimize risks from toxics.

(e.g., anticorrosive additives).

Outgassing from plastics, epoxles, coatings, and insulation (e.g.,

S, Si, silicate particles).

Release of particles due to degrada-tion or disposal of collectors.

Ralcase of toxics in fires.

4

DIRECT SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING

-Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation AIR (continued)

Pollution associated with manufac-Air quality degradation.

Use pollution control technologies.

ture of materials used in the construction of collectors and storage systems.

Choose rocks with low radon release.

Rrdon gas released from rock-Health hazard from low-level radiation Develop techniques to seal of f radon stcrage systems and concrete walls.

sources from living space.

Possible Freon releases during Addition to ozone depletion.

Careful design and proper disposal op3 ration and decommissioning.

procedures.

DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Cutting 'and clearing of trees and other Disruption of plant ecosystems and Design structures and select sites to plants to avoid shading collectors.

habitats--especially in new housing minimize clearing and cutting.

Collectors may cause shadows on some communities.

Avoid critical habitats.

plant areas.

Loss of certain species in that area.

Glass collector covers may cause Glare nuisance.

Disruption of natural reflections of sunlight.

habitats.

Passive solar structures with large Possible bird and insect kills, a

glass areas may be barriers to bird and Insect movement.

OTHER STRESSES installation and maintenance of Chance of accidents and injuries.

Proper design for safe access to collectors.

collectors requires rooftop work.

Pressnce of large areas of glass for Residential accidents and injuries from Promote awareness of safety problems collectors and windows.

broken glass due to accidents, earth-and precautions.

quakes, storms, etc.

DIRECT SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING

_ Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation OTHER STRESSES (continued) i Prestnce of chemicals in collector Worker injuries and health problems from Promote awareness of safety problems i

systems--especially in more exotic, exposure to chemical s (e.g.,11guld and precautions.

high-performance systems, sodi um and fluorocarbons).

Entrance of molds and fungi into room Allergy and other health problems for Ensure adequate separation and interiors from working fluids and some people.

sealing-off from ilving space.

stcrage systems.

Fires may be caused by overheating.

Public and residential hazards.

Possible Better education, design standards, release of toxic chemicals.

etc. to ensure proper and j

thoughtful construction.

Physical presence of rooftop Possibly architecturally unpleasing.

Thoughtful selection of collection collectors.

Glare distractions.

site--especially in new house Thne designs required for passive Aesthetic losses.

construction.

structures.

4 Possible loss of shade trees to

'?

cxpose collectors to sunlight.

Ensrgy required for manufacture of Possible use of nonrenewable energy Use renewable energy sources and ch:micals and construction in the manufacture of materials energy-efficient equipment.

materials (steel glass, aluminum, and' production of electricity.

Minimize use of synthetic materials l

concrete).

Electricity required (more energy intensive).

for fans and motors (active systems).

Storage systems may use batteries.

4 Disruptions in work and'11ving Loss of productivity and income.

Education and design standards to I

patterns due to prolonged cold Possible illnesses and deaths if ensure the use of adequate i

cnd cloudy weather.

backup energy systems are hackup systems.

inadequate or delayed.

4 4

4 4

t 4

1

. DIRECT SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING REFERENCES

• (80 CON)

CONAES Rept., Supporting Paper 8

• (80 EIA)

Energy Info. Admin., Ann. Rept. to Congress, Vol. 3:

Forecasts

• (80 EIH)

Energy Info. Handbook

• (80Hol)

J. P. Holdren et al., " Environmental Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources"

• (80 Met)

G. Metz, " Southern Exposure"

'(78 NBS)

Nat'l. Bureau of Stds, "Home Safety Guide for Architects and Builders" (78 OTA) 0.T. A., Application of Solar Technology to Today's__

Energy Needs

• (77 Dav)

Davidson et al., Ecological Considerations of the Solar Alternative

• Discusses environmenal side effects l

l

. 4.

HYDROPOWER Water impounded behind dams represents stored gravitational energy, and, when allowed to flow through turbines, produces useful mechanical or electrical energy. Most large sites are already being used, but future benefit from hydropower could be obtained by upgrading existing facilities and adding or reconditioning turbines at existing small dams.

Another role for hydroelectric facilities is the use in pumped storage systems. Excess power from the hydroelectric plant or irom other energy sources (e.g., wind energy or photovoltaic systems) would be used to pump water to the reservoir. Energy could be retrieved later by allowing the water to flow back through the turbines.

e s h i

l

h HYDROPOWER Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation (Alterations of land, water, air, wildlife, flora)

LAND Lrnd covered by water from new dam Increased demand for land -

No new dam construction.

construction.

especially agricultural land Retrofit existing sites.

Loss of soil near reservoirs due to Deficiency of. soll nutrients, decrease in Design roads and facilities to landslides, erosion, disruptions due the amount of fertile bottom land.

minimize erosion.

to construction and new roads.

Loss of coastal lands for recreational and aesthetic uses.

Loss of flooding of downward lands, Change in soll characteristics.

Possible increased salt content th6re.

change in usage of that land.

Und:rcutting of downward river bed Lowering of water table.

due to loss of sediment.

WATER Loss of free-flowing streams and Possible local water shortage downstream. No new dam construction wild rivers or changes due Loss of a scarce recreational and Minimize flow releases in to variations in stream flow.

aesthetic resource.

retrofi tted dams.

Increased evaporation of water because Loss of fresh water by evaporation and No new dam construction.

the lake has a larger surface area seepage and higher temperature than the Possible microclimate changes.

river i t replaces.

Increased concentration of salts, minerals toxics, and organic matter; loss of a f resh water supply.

Sadimentation from erosion runoff.

Siltation, possible eutrophication Careful planning to minimize Stratification of nutrients and other and stagnation.

erosion.

chemicals in the lake.

H HYDROPOWER O

Mitigation Environmental Stress Consequences AIR No significant stresses.

DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Btrrier to fish migration.

Interference with spawning.

Avoid disruption of critical habitats.

Drastic change in fish ecosystem.

Possible loss of certain species.

No new dam construction.

Minimize the size of flow releases.

Higher water temperature in lake.

Direct impact on fish.

Make use of special design features contra'st to downstream river.

Loss of some inland cold-(e.g., fish ladders and intake l

Cold lake-bottom temperatures, water fisheries (e.g.,

screening) 1 trout streams).

l Possible microclimate changes.

,L Estuarine imbalance downstream.

Change in estuarine ecosystem.

No new dam construction.

Possible loss of some species.

Chrnge in woodland habitat for Possible loss of some wildlife.

construction of reservoi r.

Cutting and clearing near dam and Loss of some plant species.

• Avoid cutting and clearing of critical plant areas.

lake during construction and use.

1 Like water is quieter and allows Higher phylopiankton growth and deeper penetration of sunlight, change in aquatic ecosystem.

OTHER STRESSES Catastrophic loss of lives and homes.

Proper location of dams and houses.

Dam fa71.

No new dam construction.

Increased chance of earthquake from pressure of dam and reservoir.

l Relocation of people to make way for rese rvoi r

HYDROPOWER Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation OTHER STRESSES (continued)

Increased demand for materials and Possible shortage of materials for other Minimize use of material for cnergy for dam construction and manu-

needs, retrofitting old dams.

facture of mechanical equipment.

Increased demand for non-renewable energy. Use renewable energy sources and energy-efficient equipment.

Large fluctuations of water inconvenience for use of Negotiate schedules of flow levels in lakes and streams.

recreational and residential releases to minimize the facilities.

adverse ef fects.

l l

l l

I j

. HYOROPOWER REFERENCES

• (81 NER)

Water, Watts, and Wilds, Final report of the New England River Basins Commission's Study.

• (81 Deu)

Deudney " Hydropower: An Old Technology for a New Era"

• (80 CON)

CONAES Rept., Supporting Paper 8

• (80 EIA)

Energy Info Admin., Ann. Rept.

• (80 EIH)

Envirn. Info Handbook

• (80 Hol)

Holdren et al., "Envir. Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources"

• (80 Jas)

Jassby, " Environmental Effects of Hydroelectric Power Development"

• (80 Thei)

-Thompson, " Hydroelectric Power in the U.S...."

(78 Ent)

Enfingh and Fowler, "Small-Scale Hydroelectric-..."

Harte and Jassby, " Energy Technologies and Natural (78 Har)

Environments"

• (78 MITR)

MITRE. Report, " Features of Hydroelectric Facilities and Their Impact on Fish and Wildlife Resources"

• Distcusses environmental side effects l

l n

. l 5

WIND ENERGY CONVERSION (WEC)

Wind energy is available because of uneven absorption of solar energy by the air - on a global basis - resulting in movement of air mass. Wind energy conversion systems are used to change the kinetic energy of the wind to useful nechanical energy or, by means of generators, to electricity.

WEC systems are classified according to the, rotating shaf t axis orientation:

vertical or horizontal.

Provisions are required so that adjustments can be made to changes in windflow directions. The efficiency of WEC systems dep. ends on siting (e.g., hilltops and offshore), 'the height of the tower, and proximity to other WEC machines (aerodynamic Interference limitations).

i I

I 1

l

m WIND ENERGY CONVERSION (WEC)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation LAND

'WEC farms require land areas (e. g.,

Competition with other land needs.

Encourage compatible uses of land around WEC machines.

9rasslands); although multiple uses will reduce the requirements.

Use efficient spacing for machines.

More land would be used i f additional Plan siting for feeding into existing transmission network is required.

power grids.

Disruption of land for roads and Reduced water retention capabilities.

Design roads and facility to minimize construction.

Loss of soll and nutrients.

erosion.

WATER No cooling water needed.

important advantage of WEC - no demand on water supplies.

P:ssible release of chemicals during Contamination of nearby water supplies.

Proper siting away from water supplies. d,

'i fires or other accidents from on-site storage media (e.g., batteries).

AIR Chrmical releases from storage media.

Possible air quality degradation.

Choose sites to minimize impact on residential areas.

Emission of materials from flywheel dacomposition during a failure.

Dust emissions during construction.

Chinge on distribution of atmospheric Possible local weather changes ccnstituents due to modified wind (could be beneficial).

l patterns during WEC operation.

Electromagnetic waves produced by Possible interference with TV, radio Careful siting to minimize interference.

moving parts. Reflections fron and microwave transmission.

~

towers.

I i

WIND ENERGY CONVERSION (WEC)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Cutting and clearing for facility and Destruction of plants and natural habitats. Avoid disruption of critical habitats, transmission lines.

Possible loss of some species.

Brrriers to wildlife movement.

Possible destruction of birds and insects Choose sites with migration and flight colliding with wind machines.

pattern-In mind.

New source of noise.

Noise disruptions of wildlife habitats.

Mountaintop and hilltop sitings are Loss of some natural mountain habitats.

praferable from energy standpoint.

OTHER STRESSES O

Visibility of wind machines on ridges.

Loss of natural panoramas. Wind machines involve public in choice of designs i'

increased presence of transmission are aesthetically unpleasing to some and sitings.

n2twork (mainly for remote si tes).

people.

Noisa during WEC operation.

Annoying noise.

Nulssance in residential Proper design and orientation to mini-areas. Possible psychological effects mize noise.

Research on alternative and property damage from infrasound.

designs. Modify facilities if infra-sound research Indicates hazards.

Workerandpublicsafetyhroblems.

Fall-safe designs. Routine preventive Ftcility operation hazards: blade fall, maintenance, Ica shedding, expulsion of parts, toppling towers.

injuries from falls and accidents Promote awareness of safety problems Tall towers present hazards for workers arising f rom the use of heavy and precautions.

who build and maintain facIIIty, equipment.

Towers are obstacles for aircraft.

Possible air accidents.

Use proper visual warning equipment.

M-tarials (especially steel) and Increased demand for certain materials.

Energy needed for construction of increased pollution and energy use assoc-Use renewable energy and energy-efficient the facilities.

lated with manufacture of materials.

equipment.

E i

o

7.,

. WIND POWER REFERENCES

• (81 Fla)

Flavin, "A Renaissance for Wind Power"

• (81 Hun)

Hunt, Windpower

• (81 Sor)

Sorensen, " Turning to the Wind"

• (80 CON)

CONAES Report, Supporting Paper 8

• (80 EIA)

Energy Info. Admin., Ann. Rept. to Congress

• (80 ElH)

Envir. Info. Handbook: Technology Characterizations (80 Eld)

Eldridge, Wind Machines

• (80 Hol)

Holdren et al., "Envir. Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources"

• (80 Law)

Lawrence et al., " Environmental Assessment of Small Wind Systems"

• (80 Sor)

Sprensen, " Environmental Impact of Wind Energy Utilization"

• (80 Tho2)

Thompson, "The Prospects for Wind and Wave Power in North America

• (79 Gus)

Gustavson, " Limits to Wind Power Utilization"

• (78 Bla)

Black and Veatch, Envir. Assessment of Wind Turbine Power Plants

• (78 DOE d)

Dept. of Energy, Final Envir. Impact Statement, Wind Turbine Generator System i

• (78 Sen)

Sengupta and Senior, Electromagnetic Interference by Wind Turbine Generators

• (78 Sor)

Bent Sdrensen, " Wind Energy"

• (77 Dav)

Davidson, " Ecological Considerations of the Sola~r Alternative" (77 ERD)

ERDA Rept.

• (77 Rog)

Rogers et al., Environmental Studies Related to the Operation of Wind Energy Conversion Systems (73 Sav)

Wind Energy Conversion Systems, M. Savino, ed.

• Discusses environmental side effects

4.

~

r 6.

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY Photovoltaic cells use semiconductors that convert infrared and visible light into electric current. The most common type is the monocrystalline silicon cell. Others being researched use cadmium sulfide (CdS), polycrystalline silicon (Si), or amorphous Si.

Associated equipment includes support structures and energy. storage equipment. Residential and commercial users could connect to utility grids in order to sell excess power when available and to have backup power for periods of insufficient sunlight.

A wide range of applications of photovoltaic cells is being considered:

• Dispersed Residential Use l

Millions of homes could use arrays of cells to supply electrical energy.

• Large-scale Central Facilities

- Land-based systems: farms of photovoltaic cells.

- Solar Power. Satellites (SPS): collection of solar energy in i

orbit, transmission to land-based receivers (rectennas) by means of microwaves.

\\

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY Centralized Collection and Solar Power Satellites (SPS)

}

l Environmental Stress Consequences l

i LAND Land areas required for collectors.

Competition with other land needs.

Look for compatible uses of surrounding land.

Incr7ased urbanization near sites.

Avoid use of prime land.

Dicruption of land for construction Reduced capability for water retention Design roads and facilities to reduce erosion.

cnd roads.

E-WATER T

4 Watsr may be required for cooling.

Increased demand on water supplies.

Use closed-cycle cooling or dry cooling.

Runoff into water from construction.

Water contamination.

Strict maintenance and disposal procedures to minimize raleases.

Raltase of cleaning fluid and cell Good choice of chemicals and cell materials during maintenance and materials to reduce toxies.

disposal.

AIR Emissions from accidents and fires.

Air quality degradation.

Choose sites away from residential areas.

Choose materials to reduce harards.

Dutt emissions during construction.

DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Destruction Ef plants and disruption of Avoid disruption of critical habitats.

C1 string and cutting for construction 4

natural habitats.

and roads.

Structures present barriers to movement. Possible loss of so:nc species.

Increased urbanization near site puts pressure on natural habitats.

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENEF.GY Centralized Collection and Solar Power Satellites (SPS)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA (continued)

Focussed light beams may be exposed Possible injury of animals in direct Plan facility siting to accomodate to wildlife.

contact with light beam.

wildlife living patterns.

Direct injuries if exposed to intense beams.

SPSt. plants and animals in the area Possible long-term effects of irradi-Design rectenna sites to keep animals of rectenna sites will ba ation.

out of the irradiation area.

exposed to microwave radiation.

Temperature changes in exposed leaves.

OrHER STRESSES Worker hazards associated with Accidents and injuries.

Promote awareness of safety problems cohstruction of large-scale power and precautions.

plants.

Worker exposure to cleaning fluids Choose chemicals to reduce risk of and other chemicals during main-exposure to toxic chemicals.

tsnance, disposal, and fires.

Exposure to toxic materials in AC voltage boost equipment.

PoJaible exposure to chemicals if lead-l teid batteries.are used for energy ctorage.

Pozzible change in local temperature Potential local weather changes.

Monitor climatic effects and make

. patterns.

changes in facility operation as needed.

SPS: possible changes in vertical Atmospheric changes (e.g., acceleration structure of stratosphere due of ozone problem).

to large number of rocket launches.

SPS:

satellites also provide oppor-Another means of escalating weapons Promote awareness of military tunity for military applications.

buildup. Increased risk of war.

applications.

w

w

~

PHCTf0 VOLTAIC ENERGY Centralized Collection and Solar Power Satellites (SPS)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation 0$tERSTRESSES (continued)

SPS: exposure of humans to microwave Long-term effects of low-level radiation. Promote awareness of radiation safety radiation--routine and accidental.

problems.

SPS:

increase in electromagnetic Possible interference with communication Involve the public in policy decisions.

Careful siting of rectenna facilities.

waves in the environment.

systems.

SPS:

large amounts of material and Competition for materials needed for Use renewable energy and efficient energy needed for construction other purposes.

equipment.

Increased demand for some materials.

Minimize use of scarce material.

of satellites and rockets.

e Large amounts of concrete and wood Energy used for manufacture.

or aluminum required for construc-tion of large-scale power plants.

Manufacture of cells requires use

.Possible shortage of some substances, choose cell designs to conserve scarce substances.

of substances such as arsenic, cadmium, and gallium.

Crntralized collectors can alter Visually unpleasing to some people.

Avoid siting on prime recreational Could lose some recreational areas.

and inspirational land.

IXndscapes and panoramas.

. PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY REFERENCES (81 DOE)

DOE / NASA, A Bibliography for the Satellite Power System...

• (81 Gla)

Peter Glaser, "The Solar Power Satellite..."

• (81 NAS)

National Academy of Sciences, Electric Power from Orbit.

• (81 OTA 2)

Office of Technology Assessnent, Solar Power Satellites.

• (80 CEP)

Citizens' Energy Project, " Solar Power Satellite Fact Sheet"

• (80 CON)

CONAES Rept., Supporting Paper 8

• (80 EIA)

Energy info. Admin., Ann. Rept.

• (80 ElH)

Envi r. Info. Handbook

• (80 Hol)

Holdren et al., " Environ. Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources"

• (80 Nef)

T. J. Neff quoted in Technol. Review article

• (79 inh)

Inhaber, " Risk wi th Energy f rom Conventional and Nonconventional Sources" (79 APS)

APS Study Group on Solar Photovoltaic Energy

• (79 WIN)

D. C. Winston, "There Goes the Sun"

• (78 DOE 1)

DOE / NASA, Compilation and Assessment of Microwave Bloeffects l

l l

l

• Discusses environmental side effects

. 7 SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRIC CONVERSION (STEC)

Large-scale conversion of solar radiation to electricity may be accomplished by using collectors such as linear concentrators, saline ponds, parabolic dish concentrators, and central receiver with heliostat field (mirrors that track the sun). The solar radiation is focused l

onto a receiver in the tower where electricity is generated. The conversion process (e.g., a Rankine-cycle steam systemjwould use a

• working fluid which is heated and then used in a turbine and generator system to produce electricity.

For industrial applications, a system would need about -day storage capacity and a backup system.

4 SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRIC CONVERSION (STEC)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation LAND Land areas required for collectors.

Competition with other land needs.

Look for compatible uses of land.

Increased population near the facility. Pressure to convert land for residential Avoid conversion of prime land, use and highways.

Dicruption of land for construction Change in soil retention abilities.

Design roads and facilities to reduce erosion.

and roads.

WATER watir required for cooling in power Possible water shortages--especially in Avoid siting in water-short areas.

plant.

the Southwest where STEC plants are Use dry cooling towers.

Increased demand for residential use.

most practical.

I Runoff into water supplies from Contamination of water supplies.

Use strict maintenance and disposal h

canstruction site and roadways.

procedures.

Relcase of cleaning materials used Choose chemicals to reduce pollution f:r maintenance of mirrors.

problems.

AIR Relgase of cleaning materials and Air quality degradation.

Choose sites away from populated areas.

Choose chemicals to reduce hazards.

cther chemicals in accidents.

Dust emissions during construction.

I l

I I

SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRIC CONVERSION (STEC)

Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigstion DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Ciscring and cutting during construc-Destruction of plants and disruption of Avoid siting in critical habitats.

tion.

natural habitats.

Prs:sure on desert habitats where Possible loss of some species.

STEC facilities most practical.

Barriers to wildlife movement.

Disruption of migration patterns and Consider flight paths in siting.

flight paths.

Exposed, focussed light beam.

Animals could be injured by direct Design facility to keep animals away exposure to the light beam.

from light beam.

5 e

OTHER STRESSES 9

Alt: ration of landscapes and Reduction in visual attractiveness.

Include aesthetic considerations in

' Loss of potential open recreational the design.

panoramas.

lands.

Avoid conversion of prime lands.

Exposure of workers to cleaning Injuries and long-term health effects.

Choose chemicals to reduce risks t

from toxies.

materials and light beam.

Promote awareness of safety issues.

Poszible effect on local thermal Might lead to local weather changes.

Monitor effect on climate. Modify design or close down if necessary.

gnergy balance.

En:rgy and materials (e.g. aluminum Pollution associated with manufacture Minimize use of materials.

End concrete) needed for construc-and non-renewable energy production.

Use renewables and efficient equipment.

tion of the facility.

. _ _ ~. - - _

i t SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRIC CONVERSION REFERENCES

• (81 CEP 2)

Gallagher, " Solar Thermal Power Towers" Ullman e_t, al., Wrker Health and Safety

• (81 Ull) t

• (80 CON)

CONAES Report, Supporting Paper 8

• (80 EIA)

Energy Information Administration, Annual Report

• (80 ElH)

Environmental Information Handbook

• (80 Hol)

Holdren et al., "Envi ron. Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources"

• (78 Cap)

Caputo, " Solar Power Plants" l

l

• Discusses envi ronmental side ef fects j

I

8.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

OTEC systems make use of temperature differences between ocean surfaces and deep waters. The differential requirement (> 36 F )

favors U'.S. sitings near islands in the Pacific and Caribbean, portions of the Gulf of Mexico, and offshore southern California.

Siting is further constrained by availability of electrical transmission

, facilities, unless the OTEC system converts energy or, site to other products (e.g., hydrogen, ammonia, aluminum).

Conversion technologies currently being developed include techniques to generate electricity through open and closed Rankine-cycle systems (see diagram).

In closed-cycle setups, warm ocean water heats a secondary workirig fluid (e.g., cmmonia). The resulting vapor is expanded in a turbine that is coupled to an electric generator. The cold ocean water then cools the exhaust which is pumped back to complete the cycle.

OTEC systems will be designed to obtain useful power at temperature dif ferences that are well below those at which conventional power plants operate.

I

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation LAND On-chore support facilities may be Competition for shoreline land.

Avoid citing in critical coastal areas.

required.

l WATER Relsase of chemicals - e.g. working Local water quality degradation.

Good choices for working fluids.

Strict maintenance procedures and disposal fluids and anti-biofouling chemicals.

Disruption of local marine eco-methods.

Rel ase of metal corrosion.

systems.

Design support systems with water quality in mind.

Contamination from life support systems required for manned Install signalling equipment for navi-sk gational safety.

?

platforms.

Possible oil spills from ship collisions with the OTEC facility.

Chnnge in local oceanic properties Possible local weather changes and Monitor effects of facility operations due to ocean water displacement effects on ocean currents.

and modify the use if necessary.

--possibly significant amount of Possible cooling effect in distant h;at removed from warm ocean regions connected by slow, warm currents.

currents.

AIR R21sase of CO fr m naturated Contribution to CO buildup and Monitor CO emissions.

2 2

2 deepwater brought to the surface, global warming Emicsions from life support systems.

Local air pollution.

Use pollution control technologies.

EmiEsion of volatile working fluids cnd other chemica'ls.

o.

1 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA Dieruption of coastal habitats due to Changes in habitat and migration Avoid siting in critical coastal habitats.

presence of on-shore support patterns.

ftcilities.

Altsred temperatures, currents, and nutrient patterns in the water.

Entrainment of organisms from cold Disruption of local marine eco-Plan facility to avoid interference with critical sea life movement.

wrter intake.

system.

OTEC facility presents barrier to Possible loss of some species.

caa life movement.

Upwelling of nutrients.

Release of metal corrosion and Disruption and contamination of Strict procedures for maintenance, local marine food supplies.

chemical handling, and disposal.

Jn chemicals.

T Destruction of some plants from blocide release near the facility.

OTHER STRESSES Digruption of coastal areas by Altered view of coastal area and Avoid conversion of prime coastal on-shore facilities.

interference with recreational lands.

uses.

Construction, maintenance, and Accidents from work hazards.

Promote awareness of safety problems and precautions.

decommissioning required for large ocean platforms.

Chemicals and other materials must Increased demand on materials.

Minimize use of materials.

manufactured for construction Pollution and energy use associated Use renewable energy and energy efficient cnd maintenance of facilities, with manufacturing.

equipment.

Po sible political tension arising Potential conflicts over violations Avoid likely volatile situations.

of international laws. Chance of Negotiate clear agreements prior to from sitings in international waters.

construction.

war.

4

1

- OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION REFERENCES t

i

• (81 CEP 3)

Penner and Bossong, "0TEC: A Solar White Elephant?"

I

• (80 CON)

CONAES Report, Supporting Paper 8 (80 Cou)

Power from Sea Waves, B. Count, ed.

• (80 EIA)

Energy Info. Admin., Ann. Report

• (80 ElH)

Environmental Info. Handbook, Technology Characterizations

• (80 Hol)

Holdren et al. "Envir Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources"

• (80 isa)

Isaacs and Schmitt, Ocean Energy: Forms and Prospects" (78 OTA)

" Renewable Ocean Energy Sources" (77 ERD)

ERDA Report

• (73 Zen)

C. Zener, " Solar Sea Power"

• Discusses envi ror. mental side ef fects 1

i

(

r-

-W 9.

GEXmERMAL DEEY CeothermaI resources are in the form of heat stored in the earth and can be reached by drilling. The heat can then be brought to the surface in a fluid that can be used directly or for the generation of electricity. Residential and commercial use primarily takes the form of a district heating system or large institutional system.

Table 5.

Types of Resources Comments and Examples Hydrothermal Convection Water and steam trapped in fractured rocks

• Hot-Water or sediments.

Currently in use directly

• Vapor-Dominated or for electricity. About 30% of U.S.

resources have temperatures greater than 3000 F.

Most of the resources with temp.

greater than 200g f are in Western states

--mostly California Geopressured Reservoirs Water and dissolved methane at moderately high temperatures and high pressures.

Principally along the Gulf Coast Hot, Dry Rocks Relatively unfractured hot rocks at accessible depths and containing little or no water.

Fracturing required for introducing and circulating a working fluid. Most of these resources are "

found in Western U.S.

1

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Environmental Stress' Consequences Mitigation i

LAND Geological stress--especiall'y Possibility of earthquakes, sub-Proper choice of site based on geological l

from use of geopressured brines, sidence, sink holes.

survey prior to construction.

i Reinject brines to reduce chance of subsidence.

Digruptions of land in the vicinity.

Reduced ability for water retention, Design roads and facility to minimize of the energy facility for roads loss of soil and nutrients.

crasion.

cnd construction.

Release of chemicals from working Land may be contaminated by toxic Use closed-cycle systems.

fluids and from underground when substances.

Damage to habitats.

circulated to sites of use.

WATER E

WIter loss occurs from pumping Contribution to possible water Use closed-cycle systems. Otherwise down into rocks.

shortages, avoid siting in water-short areas.

Release of chemicals from working

'roxic substances could enter water Design system and choose chemicals to fluids and from underground.

supplies.

avoid toxic releases.

Monitor water supplies.

AIR Metallic compounds, oxides, and Air quality degradation. Health Monitor radioactive and toxic releases.

I water vapor may be released hazards Collect and store substances as when water is brought to surface.

necessary.

Alto, possible release of radioactive Long-term hazards from low-level Use closed-cycle systems.

materials (e.g., radon products).

radiation.

Release of heat. Local warming.

Microclimatic changes are possible.

. DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FLORA l

Dicruption of natural habitats due Changes in habitat and migration Avoid sites that disturb critical habitats.

to presence of the facility.

patterns.

Barriers to movement.

Possible loss of some species.

Iritroduction of new noise source.

I

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Environmental Stress Consequences Mitigation DIRECT IMPACT ON WILDLIFE AND FIDRA (continued)

Cutting and clearing for construc-Destruction of plants, tion and roads.

(71HER STRESSES Physical presence of the facility Altered view of landscape. May be Avoid using prime landscapes and in previously natural settings, aesthetically unpleasing.

recreational areas.

H t, high-pressure fluids in the Potential hazard to workers.

Promote awareness of safety problems and precautions.

work environment.

Construction materials and chemicals Competition for materials. Pollu-Minimize use of substances in short supply, ere used to build and maintain tion and non-renewable energy use the facility.

are associated with the manu-Use renewable energy sources.

facture of materials.

- GE0 THERMAL ENERGY REFERENCES (81 Hei)

Heiken et al., " Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy"

• (80 CON)

CONAES Report, Supporting Paper 8

• (80EIA)

Energy Info. Admin., Ann. Rept.

• (80 EIH)

Environ. Info. Handbook (80 Mis)

Miskell, " Geothermal Energy: Ready for Use"

• (80Wer)

Oleh Weres, "...Present and Potential Environmental Impacts.. "

• Discusses environmental side effects l

1 l

i 1

l

SUMMARY

AND PRELIMINARY EVALUATION The summary tables found in this section of the interim report represent The side the evaluation of the data accumulated at this stage of the project.

effects that appear to pose the highest risks fall into the following categories:

Increased demand for construction materials, chemicals, and nonrenewable energy.

Increased numbers of human accidents associated with particular energy systems.

• Problems associated with water and land use.

• Air pollution.

• Other high-risk side effects on natural blota.

For each renewable, those specific side effects judged to be the most significant are listed in the summary table 6.

Ongoing work in the SERES project is aimed at further investigation of these side effects -- including the quant-Ification of the effects where possible. Modification of the evaluations and rankings will be made as more data and calculations becore available.

Finally, and most importantly, the search for possible solutions to the

- problems arising from the various side e#fects is a major objective of the ongoing work. The mitigating actions proposed at this point are summarized in Table 7, and the renewables for which these actions are most necessary are i

Indicated.

Further mitigating actions will be investigated as the project proceeds.

l

Table 6.

SUMMARY

OF HIGH-RISK SIDE EFFECTS ENERGY ACCIDENTS SOURCE MATERIALS USE AND ILLNESS WATER USE LAND USE AIR POLLUTION OTHER SIDE EFFECTS Increased use of Accident rates Demand for water Pressure would Emissions from Potential loss of chemicals to make are high for would increase.

si gni fi cantly boilers and some critical fertilizers.

workers in agri-Runoff of soil and increase to con-stills could be natural habitats.

BIOMASS culture and chemicals could be vert cropland significant--

Materials are needed logging l a rge.

and protected especially if Possible loss of lands.

using nonrenew-some wildlife for construction of able fuels, and plant species.

conversion facilities, Erosion rates Local pollution could increase if from wood proper land man-burning.

agement is not Wind erosion.

followed.

v.T Further demand on some constituents of photovoltaic High accident increased water Land areas are Military applica-cells that are in rates for con-use if conversion required for tions of SPS.

short supply.

struction of brgs. system has water collector farms.

Bi rd and Insect kills could result LARGE-SCALE tall towers.

cooling, from improper increased use of Worker exposure PHOTOV0LTAIC concrete, steel, etc. to toxics in man-Improper disposal siting in flight in the construction ufacture and in-of cleaning fluids, paths.

AND STEC of collector farms.

stallation of.

working fluids, Disruption of natural habitats.

cells and working and used cells could Possible local fluid system, contaminate water climate changes.

supplies.

Prime natural areas Radical disrup-might be flooded for tions of habitats HYDROPOWER reservoirs.

by new reservoirs.

Loss of natural free-flowing rivers m

C_

9 Table 6.

N

SUMMARY

OF HIGH-RISK SIDE EFFECTS l

ACCIDENTS SOURCE MATERIALS USE AND ILLNESS WATER USE LAND USE AIR POLLUTION OTHER S10E EFFECTS ENERGY WEC arrays may be Some land re-Increased use of Hazards from metals and concrete working on tall quired for WEC visually unpleasIn Noise may be dis-l system arrays and WIND for construction structures.

-turbing. Possible l

possibly for new f WEC systems, radio and TV l

ENERGY transmission lines interference.

l (multiple uses of land are possible l

though).

I Hazards from hot Chemicals may get Possible geologic Possible emis-Possible disruptioi GEOTHERMAL high-pressure into groundwater e f fec t s.

sions of signi-of scenic areas.

fluids.

--especially, Might lead to ficant quantities geopressured subsidence or of toxic substan-brine systems, earthquakes--

ces. Some radio-ENERGY sh especially for active substances 9eopressured would be released.

i' brines.

Possible release Some coastal Possible release Disruption of loca OTEC of chemicals and areas would be of CO fr m deep marine ecosystem.

2 waste products used for ocean water into water, support facIII-brought to the ties.

surface, increased demand for Fire hazards and Possible contam-RESIDENTIAL scarce materials overheating of ination from needed for manu-rooftop collec-disposal of used cells and working PHOTOVOLTAIC facture of photo-

tors, voltaic cells.

Release of toxics fluids.

In fires and other accidents.

Table 6.

SUMMARY

OF HIGH-RISK SIDE EFFECTS ENERGY ACCIDENTS SOURCE MATERIALS USE AND ILLNESS WATER USE LAND USE AIR POLLUTION OTilER SIDE EFFECTS DIRECT SOLAA Construction mater-Accidents from Disposal of working Land area Collectors and HEATING AND lals needed (e.g.

handling working fluids could cause required solar architec-COOLING glass, metals, con-fluids for ac-water pollution, for storage ture may be crete) tive systems.

ponds.

unpleasing to Glass breakage some people.

hazards.

Materials and energy Possible release Possibility of are needed for man-of toxics from Indoor air pol-CONSERVATION ufacture of Insula-insulation during lution if houses tion and energy-fire.

are too tight.

efficient appilances.. Possible long-term effects from radon buildup.

E Greater severity

?

of accidents due to increase in small cars.

e e

l

~

E 3

Tr.ble 7 Summary of Mitigating Actions That May Be Required U

N N

for Large-Scale Use of Renewable Energy 5

E m

E G

a E

o 5

e n

9 a

S S

a i

MITIGATING ACTION g

g g

g g

z x

x x

x x

x x

x 1.

Usa energy-efficient equipment and renewable energy in the construction, maintenance, and decommissioning of renewable-anargy facilities.

x x

x x

x x

x x

2.

Minimize the use of resources for which the renewable-energy technologies are in competition with critical needs or cause severe economic or employment problems.

x x

x x

x x

x Promote awareness of worker and public safety problems that 3

may arise or become worse because of increased use of renewable Pubilcize precautionary measures and provide safe cnargy.

squipment. Minimize the chances for exposure to toxic chemicals.

E.

x x

x 4.

Minimize the use of fresh water supplies and avoid siting in known water-short areas.

x x

x x

x x

x Avoid use of critical habitats for energy farms or conversion 5

facility sites.

x x

x x

x x

x 6.

Design facilities to be compatible with wildlife. habitats and movement patterns.

x 7

No new dam construction; use existing sites.

x x

x x

x x

x 8.

Avoid conversion of prime natural, scenic, and food-crop lands for energy crops or conversion facilities.

Look for compatible, multiple uses of any land.

x 9

Use best techniques to minimize erosion.

i x

x x

x x

10. Use proper precautions to avoid contamination of water supplies with soll and chemicals. Choose chemicals for working fluids, maintenance, etc. with environmental risks in mind.

Tibis 7, cont.

E M

l u

s CE y'

5 s

=

m E

'G E

E o

5 C

=

E e

a S

S E

MITIGATING ACTION g

g g

g g

g 11.

Require pollution control technologies.

Requi re or enforce x

x x

x existing local ordinances to reduce air pollution. Monitor pollution levels and modify operations if needed.

"12.

Design facilities to be aesthetically pleasing and free of x

x x

x x

noise disturbance.

13 Avoid electromagnetic interference with communications x

systems.

4

14. Monitor side effects that could contribute to climate or x

x x

x x

weather changes.

15.

Promote awareness of potential mill _tary applications.

x e

l

• BIBLIOGRAPHY This section contains a selected bibilography of recent references. While some key references on technical aspects are included, this compliation is primarily devoted to references covering the environmental aspects of renewable energy sources.

Table 8 below is a summary of references of special interest. As indicated, several references each contained discussions of more than one renewable energy A few recent bibilographies are also given in the table.

Finally, sources source.

of continually updated Information are listed.

Table 8 (81 Ros), (81 Pla), (81 CON), (80 EI A), (80 ElH),

References in which more (80 Hol), (80 Ken), (80 LBV), (79 Hol), (79 inh),

than one renewable energy (79 L6w)

(79 Smi), (79 Sor), (79 Win), (78 Har),

source is covered (78 inh), (78 Poo), (77 Til)

(81 DOE), (81 MITR), (80 Blo), in (80 CON), in (80 ElH),

Bibliographies in (80 Hol), in (80 Law), (80 War), (79 Hoy)

Sources of updated Environment Information Center, Inc. - Energy Information Information Abstracts Energy Information Administration - Monthly Energy Review l

t

Table 9 Addresses of Organizations Cited in the Bibliography The Bloenergy Council 1625 Eye St., N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20006 Center for Energy and Princeton University Environmental Studies Princeton, N.J. 08544 Citizens' Energy Project 1110 6th St., N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20001 Energy and Resources Group University of California Berkeley, CA 94720 Energy Information Center, Inc.

292 Madison Ave.

New York, NY 10017 Energy information Administration 12th St. & Pennsylvania Ave., N.W.

(EIA)

Washington, D.C. 20461 International Solar Energy R.I.A.T., U.S. Highway 190 W Society-American Section Killeen, TX 76541 (ISES-AS)

MITRE Corp.

1820 DoIIey Madison Blvd.

McLean, VA 22102 National Bureau of Standards Rte. 270 (NBS)

Gaithersburg, MD 20234 National Technical Information 5285 Port Royal Road Service (NTIS)

Springfield, VA 22161 Office of Technology Assessment 17th St. & Pennsylvania Ave., N.W.

(OTA)

Washington, D.C. 20500 Scientists' Institute for Public 355 Lekington Ave.

Information (SIPI)

New York, NY 10017 Solar Energy Research Institute 1536 Cole Blvd.

(SERI)

Golden, CO 80401 Worldwatch Institute 1776 Massachusetts Ave., N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

. " Forecasting Trends in Auto Safety",

(82Plo)

StevenE.Plotkin[0ctober, 1982)27.

Environment 24 (82 Ros)

H. S. Rosenkranz, " Diesel Emissions and Health", Science 216 (April 23, 1982) 360.

(81 Aud)

Audubon Energy Plan, Technical Report of the National Audubon Society (April, 1981).

(81 sey)

J. E. Beyea, " Indoor Air Pollution," Commentary in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists E (Feb., 1981) 63 (81 CEP 1)

Ken Bossong, " Gasohol and Other Alcohol Fuels",

Citizens' Energy Project Report No. 134 (198I),

(81 CEP 2)

Brian Gallagher, " Solar Thermal Power Towers,"

Citizens' Energy Project Report No. 107 (1981).

(81 CEP 3)

Charlie Penner and Ken Bossong, " Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion,"

Citizens' Energy Project Report No. 101 (1981).

(81 Deu)

Daniel Duedney, " Hydropower: An Old Technology for a New Era," Environment 23 (1981) 17; and Worldwatch Paper 44 (June, 1981).

(81 DOE)

DOE / NASA, A Bibliography for the Satelli te Power System (SPS)

Concept Developtrp t and Evaluation Program, 00E/ER-0098 (April, 1981).

(31 ERAB)

Energy Research Advicory Board, Biomass Energy, Report to U.S.

D.O. E. (Nov., 1981).

(81 Fer)

J. D. Ferchak and E. K. Pye " Utilization of Biomass in the U.S. for the Production of Ethanol Fuel as a Gasoline Replacement, I and il " Solar Energy 26 (1981) 9 and 17 (81 Fla)

Christopher Flavin, "A Renaissance for Wind Power, Envi ronment y (1981) 31.

(8l,FSE)

Florida Solar Energy Center / DOE Solar Technology Assessment Conf., (Orlando, Jan., 1981).

(81 Gib)

J. H. Gibbons and W. U. Chandler, 7 Energy, The Conser-g ti_on Revolution (Plenum,1981)

(81 Gla)

Peter Glaser, "The Colar Power Satellite-Past, Presents and Future", Space Solar power Review 2, (1981) 13 (81 Gra)

Charles Gray and Frank von Hippel, "The Fuel Economy of Light Vehicles," Scientific Americatl $ (1981) 48.

., '(81 Hel)

G. Heiken et al., " Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy',"

Amer. Scientist (July-August, 1981) 400.

l (81 Hun)

V. Daniel Hunt, Windpower-A Handbook on Wind Energy Conversion Systems (Van Nostrand, 1981)..

(81 Hur)

H. Hurwitz, Jr., A.V. Nero, Jr., and J. E. Beyea, Commentary on Indoor Air Pollution, Bull. Atom.

Scient. (Feb.

1981) 61.

1 (81 ISES)

Conf. Report, ISES-AS/et al., Wind Power:

Energy Alter-native for Midwest 2nd Conf., (Minnesota, Apr. 3-4, 1981.

(81 Ju)

C. Ju and J. D. Spengler, " Room-to-Room Variations in Concentration of Respirable Particles in Residences,"

Environ. Sci. and Tech. (1981).

(81 Kin)

S. B. King, "Save Energy Safely," Public Power 39 (Jan.-Feb., 1981) 28.

(81 MITR)

MITRE Corp., Metrek Division, Selected Bibliography by

Subject:

Energy, Resources and the Environment, fiTR-81W00137 (August, 1981).

(81 NAS)

Electric Power from Orbit, National Academy of Sciences Report, 0-309-03183-4 (August, 1981).

(81 NER)

Final Report of the New England River Basins Commission's Hydropower Expansion Study, Water, Watts, and Wilds (aug.,1981)

(81 OTA 1)

Energy from Biological Processes, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-E-124 (April, 1981).

(81 OTA 2)

Solar Power Satellites, Of fice of Technology Assessment,

OTA-E-144 (August, 1981).

(81 Pim 1)

David Pimental et al.

" Biomass Energy from Crop and Forest Residues," Science 212, 110 (June 1981).

(81 Pim 2 )

David Pimental, "Blomass Energy:

Bonanza or Boon-doggle?," Soft Energy Notes, 28 (Dec./Jan. 1981).

~

I (81 Pla)

P.

D.' Plaza, " Impacts of Energy Development on Wild-life: A Preliminary Study," National Audubon Society Project Report (July 1,1981).

(81 Ros I)

M.H. Ross and R.H. Williams, Our Energy:

Regaining Con t rol (McG raw-H i l l, 1981).

(81 Ros 2)

M.H. Ross, " Energy (Consumption by Industry,"

Annual Review Energy 6_ (1981) 379 (81 Smi)

Nigel Smith, " Wood: An Ancient Fuel with a New Future," Worldwatch Paper 42 (Jan., 1981).

4 (81 Sof)

Biomass Conversion Processes for_ Energy and Fuels.

S. S. Sofer and O. R. Zaborsky, eds. (Plenum, 1981).

(81 Sor)

Bent Sorensen, " Turning to the Wind," Amer. Scientist, 69 (1981) 500.

(81 Ull)

A. 2. Ullman et al., Worker Health and Safety in Thermal Power Systems IV, Routine Failure Hazards, 00E/SF/00012-T1.

(81 USD)

USDA/CEQ Report, National Agricultural Lands Study:

Interim Report No. 3- " Farm Land and Energy: Conflicts in the Making" Taan. 17, 1981) 35 (80 Ben)

P. F. Bente, Jr., "An Overview of Bio-Energy Projects in the United States," Solar Energy 25, 397 (1980).

s (80 Blo)

Bioenergy Directory, published by The Bioenergy Council (Ap r i l, 1980).

(80 Bro)

Lester Brown, Food or Fuel: New Competition for The World's Cropland, Worldwatch Paper 35 (March, 1950).

(80 Bud)

5. Budiansky, " Bioenergy: The Lesson of Wood Burning?,"

Environ. Sci and Tech. 14, 769 (July, 1980).

(80 Bur)

H. L. Burns, "Envi ronmental Impacts of increased i

Fuelwood Use," institute of Gas Technology Symposium:

Energy f rom Biomass and Wastes IV (Lake Buena Vista, Jan. 21-25, 1980).

(80 CEP)

Citizens' Energy Project, " Solar Power Satellite Fact Sheet" (Wash., D.C., 1980).

(80 Com)

Indoor Air Pollution: An Emerging Health Problem Report to the Congress of the U.S. by the Comptroller General (Sept. 24, 1980) CED-80-Ill.

(80 CON)

CONAES, Committee on Nuclear and Alternative Energy Systems, Supporting Paper 8: Energy and the Fate of Ecosystems, (National Academy Press, 1980).

(80 Coo)

J. A. Cooper, " Environmental Impact of Residential i

l Wood Combustion Emissions and its implications,"

l APCA Journal 30 (August 1980) 855 (80 Cou)

Power from Sea Waves, B. Count, ed. (Academic Press,

~

1980).

(80 Daw)

D. H. Dawson et al., "Hanaging Forests for Maximum Blomass Production," in The Role of Chemical Engineering in Utilizing the Nation's Forest Resources, G. R. Lightsey, ed., Vol. 76 (1980).

. I (80 Doe)

0. C. Doering, " Energy Dependence" In The Future of_

American Agriculture as a Strategic Resource, S. S. Batie and R. G. Healy, eds. (The Conservation Foundation, Washington,D.C.,1980).

(80 EIA)

Energy info. Admin., Ann. Rept. to Congress, Vol. 3:

Forecasts (1980).

(80 ElH)

Environmental Information Handbook: Technology Charac-terizations, Rept. DOE /EV-0061/l (June, 1980).

(80 Eld)

F. R. Eldridge, Wind Machine, second ed. (Van Nostrand, New York, 1980).

1 (80 Gol)

Michael Gold, " Indoor Air Pollution," Science 80, (March / April, 1980) 30.

(80 Hol)

J. P. Holdren, G. Morris, and I. Mintzer, "Envir.

Aspects of Renewable Energy Sources," Ann. Rev.

Energy 5, 241 (1980).

(80 Huf)

G. F. Huf f, " Ethanol f rom Blomass," Al ternative Energy Sources. Part A, Jamal T. Manassah, ed.

TAcademic Press, 1980).

I (80 isa)

J. D.

Isaacs and W. R. Schmitt, " Ocean Energy: Forms and Prospects," Science 207 (18 Jan 1980) 265 (80 Jas)

A. D. Jassby, " Environmental Ef fects of Hydroelectric Power Development, in (80 CON) p. 32.

l (80 Jun)

D. C. Junge, "The State of the Art of Producing Synthetic Fuels f rom Blomass," Alternative Energy Sources, Part A, Jamal T. Manassah, ed. (Academic Press, 1980).

(80 Ken)

H. W. Kendall and S. J. Nadis, eds., Energy Strategies,

pp. 165-176 (Ballinger, Cambridge, 1980).

(80 Law)

K. Lawrence, C. Strojan, and D O'Donnell, " Environmental Assessment of Small Wind Systems: Progress Report,"

SERi/PR-354-420 (Feb., 1980).

(80 LBV)

Energy from Biomass and Wastes IV, Symposium Papers i

(Lake Buena Vista, Jan. 21-25,1980).

(80 Met)

G. Hetz, " Southern Exposure," NBS Dimensions (Dec.,1980) i

'8.

(80 Mis)

J. T. Miskell, " Geothermal Energy: Ready for Use,"

Energy V (Fall, 1980) 27.

l~

(80 NBS)

" Activities in Wood-Heating Safety," NBS Dimension _s (Dec.,1980) 20.

(80 Nef)

T. J. Neff in "Even Photovoltales Have Social Costs,"

I Technol. Review (Oct., 1980) 80.

(80 Ner)

A. 8. Nero, "The Radon Controversy. Can insulating Your Home Be Harmful to Your Health?," SIPIscope (May/ June,1980). Also, letters by Nero and Hurwitz.

Further discussions in letters of Sept./Oct., 1980 Issue (p. 10).

(80 Nor)

W. J. North, " Review Paper: Blomass from Marine Macroscopic Plants," Solar En. 25 (1980).387.

(80 Pim)

D. Pimental et al., "the Potential for Grass-Fed I.lvestock:

Resource Constraints," Science 207 (1980) 843 (80 Plo)

S. E. Plotkin, " Energy from Blomass," Environment 22,

~

6 (Nov., 1980).

(80 Qui)

R. C. Quittenton, " Alcohol from Blomass," Chem. In Canada 32,(Nov., 1980) 5 I

(80 Rie)

Kurt Riegel et al., " Environmental and Health Concerns Stemming from Use of Bio-Energy," presented at Bio-Energy Council Bioenergy 80 Conference (Atlanta, AprII,1980).

i (80 RPC)

U. S. Radiation Policy Council, Report of the Task Force on Radon in Structures (August 15,1980).

(80 SerI)

Solar Energy, Program Sununary Document for FY 1981 (Jan., 1980).

(80 SER2)

Fuel from Farms: A Guide to Small-Scale Ethanol Production, Solar Energy information Data Bank, SERI/SP-451-519, UC-61 (Feb., 1980).

(80 SER3)

Tree Crops for Energy Co-Production on Farms, SERl/CP-622-1086 (Nov. 12-14, 1980).

(80 Sma)

V.E. Smay "Home Pollution," Popular Science (Oct., 1980) 76.

(80 Sor)

B. Sorenson, " Environmental Impact of Wind Energy Utilization," TEKST NR 34, Roskilde Univrsitet-cente r, 1980.

(80 Tho 1)

G. R. Thompson, Hydroelectric Power in the USA:

Evolving to Meet New Needs, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies, Princeton University, Draf t report (July,1980).

~

l

. (80 Tho 2)

G. Thompson, "The Prospects for Wind and Wave Power in North America," SERI Report #8 (1980).

(80 War)

B. Warren The Energy and Environment Checklist _,

Friends of the Earth (1980).

(80 Wer)

Oleh Weres, "An Evaluation of the Present and Potential Envi ronmental Impacts of... Geothermal Resources,"

in CONAES Rept., Supporting Paper 8, p. 73 (79 APS)

APS Study Group on Solar Photovoltalc Energy, article In Physics Today (Sept., 1979),

(79 Bey 1)

J. E. Beyea, " Maintaining Air Quality in Occupied Houses Which Are Retrofitted for Experimental Purposes," (Sept., 1979).

1 (79 Bey 2)

J. E. licyea, " Indoor Air Pollution," talk given at Princeton University in fall of 1979 (79 DOE)

Dept. of Energy, National Energy Plan ll, Appendix:

Environmental Trends and Impacts (May, 1979).

(79 Gus)

M. R. Gustavson, " Limits to Wind Power Utilization,"

Science 204 (April 6,1979) 13 i

(79 Har)

D. T. Harrje, G. S. Dutt, and J. E. Beyea, " Locating and Eliminating Obscure but Major Energy Losses in Residential Housing," ASHRAE Transactions 85, part 2 (1979).

(79 Hig)

C. J. High and C. E. Hewett," Environmental Aspects Wood Energy Conversion." Research Report from the Resource Policy Center, Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College (March,1979).

(79 Hol)

J. P. Holdren, K. R. Smith, G. Morris, Letter to Science 204 (1979) 564.

(79 Hoy)

D. R. Hoyt and C. Bebee, Agriculture and Alternate Energy Sources (1968-1975). National Agricultural Library quick Bibliography Series, NAL-BIBL.--79-24 (July,1979).

(79 inh)

H. Inhaber, " Risk with Energy from conventional and Nonconventional Sources," Science 203 (1979) 718.

f (79 Kla)

Blomass as a Nonfossil Fuel Source, Donald L. Klass, ed.. ACS-Symposium Series 144 (Honolulu Symposim, April 2, 1979).

(79 Law)

K. A. Lawrence, A Review of the Environmental Effects and Benefits of Selected Solar Energy Technologies, Rept. SERl/TP-53-ll4R, Natl. Tech, info. Serv.

(Springfield, VA) 1979

. (79 Pal)

E. D. Palmes et al., " Relationship of Indoor NO2 Concentrations to Use of Unvented Gas Appliances,"

J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 29 (April,1979) 392.

(79 SER)

Third Annual Blomass Energy Systems Conf. Proc. (June 5-7, 1979), SERI/TP-33-285 (79 Sml)

Valclav Smil, " Renewable Energies: How Much and How Renewable" Bull. At. Scientists (DEC., 1979) 12.

(79 Soc)

R. H. Socolow, "Four Anxletles About a Vigorous National Conservation Program: Discussion Paper," NY Acad. of Sciences (1979) p. 28.

(79 Sor)

Bent Sorensen, Renewable Energy (Academic Press,1979).

(79 Ste)

T. D. Sterling and E. Sterling, " Carbon Monoxide Levels in Kitchens and Homes with Gas Cookers, J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 3 (March, 1979) 236.

(79 Win)

D. C. Winston, "There Goes the Sun," Newsweek (Dec. 3, 1979) 35 (78sla)

Black and Veatch Consulting Engineers, Environmental Assessment of Wind Turbine Power Plants, Elect. Power Res. Instit. Project RP 955-1 (1978).

(78 Bal)

S. W. Ballou et al., Envi r. Residuals and Capital Costs of Energy Recovery from Municipal Sludge and Feedlot Manure, NTIS Dept ANL/EES-TM-53 (Aug., 1978).

(78 Cap)

R. S. Caputo, " Solar Power Plants " in Toward a Solar Civilization, R. H. Williams, Ed. (MIT Press,1975)

(78 DOE 1)

DOE / NASA, Compilation and Assessment of Microwave Bloeffects, Final Report of a Selective Review of the Literature on Biological Effects of Microwaves in Relation to the Sattellte Power System, PNL-2634 (May,1978).

Dept. of Energy, Final Environmental impact Statement, (78 DOE 2)

Wind Turbine Generator System (Block Island, Rhode Island)

Rept. No. 00E/EIS-0006.

(78 Ent)

D. J. Entingh and M. A. Fowler, "Small-Scale Hydroelectric

--Preliminary Program Plan," MITRE Tech. Rept., DGE-4014-6 (1978).

(78 Har)

J. Harte and A. Jassby, " Energy Technologies and Natural Envi ronments" Ann. Rev. Energy 3 (1978) 101.

l (78 Hru)

T. Hruby, "Environmer.tal Impact from Oceanic Energy l

Plantations," Chap. 7 of Ashare et al., Cost Analysis l

I of Aquatic Blomass Systems _, Dynatech Rept. No. 1738R (July 25, 1978).

(78 inh)

H. Inhaber, Risk of Energy Production, Rep. AECB 1119, Ottawa, Ontario: Atomic Energy Control Board of Canada (1978).

- (78 Kab)

E.K. Kaboth, "The Hazards of Saving Energy in Heavy i

industry," presentations at ASME Conf. at Houston, TX (Nov. 6 1978).

(78 Lov)

P. Love and R. Overend, Tree Power: An Assessment of the Energy Potential of Forest Blomass in Canada, Can. Dept. of Mines and Resources Rept. ER 78-1 (1978).

(78 MITR)

MITRE Rept., Features of Hydroelectric Facilities and Their impact on Fish and Wildlife Resources, MTR-7649 (78 NBS)

NBS, Home Safety Guide for Architects and Builder,s, NBS-GCR 78-156 (Dec.,1978).

(78 Ohl)

T.J. Ohlemiller and F.D. Rogers, "A Survey of Several Factors influencing Smoldering Combustion in Flexible and Rigid Polymer Foams," J. of Fire and Flammability j[ (Oct., 1978).

(78 OTA)

OTA Report: " Renewable Ocean Energy Sources" (May, 1978).

(78 Poo)

A.D. Poole and R.H. WI111ams, " Flower Power: Prospects l

for Photosynthetic Energy," Toward a Solar Civilization R.H. Will iams, ed.,169 (MIT Press, 1978).

(78 Sen)

D.L. Sengupta and T.B. A. Senior, Electromagnetic Interference by Wind Turbine Generators, Final Report, Univ. of Michigan Radiation Lab, Rept. No. TID-28828 (1978).

i I

(78 Soc)

R.H. Socolow, Saving Energy in the Home (Ballinger, l

1978).

(78 Sor)

Bent Sorensen, " Wind Energy," in Toward a Solar Civilization, R.H. Williams, ed. (MIT Press, 1978).

(77 And)

Fuels f rom Wastes, L. Anderson and D. Tillman, eds.

(Academic Press, 1977).

(77 Dav)

M. r* 4Lqor, et al., Ecological Considerations of the 6' lac \\lternative, Rept. No. LBL-5927, Univ. of

}.fET' +-8erkeley (1977).

(77 Hal) 3.0. Hal t, "Will Photosynthesis Solve the Energy P robl em?," I n Sol a r Powe r and Fuel s, James R. Bol ton,

ed., 27( Academic Press,1977).

(77 Rog)

S.E. Rogers et al., Envi ronmental Studies Related to the Operation of Wood Energy Conversion Systems, U.S. Dept. of Energy kepart No. 0092-77/2 (1977)

v. (77 Sil)

S. Silberstein, " Exposure to Indoor Pollution,"

Informal Report, BNL 23891 (Oct. 10,1977).

(77 Til)

D. Tillman et al, Fuels and Energy from Renewable Resources (Academic Press,1977).

(73 Tit)

W. Titterington, " Solid Polymer Electrolysis," in Wind Energy Conversion Systems, M. Savino, ed.,

NSF-RA-W-73-006 (Wash., 1973).

(73 Zen)

C. Zener, " Solar Sea Power;" Phys. Today (Jan.,1973) 48.

l